Rhythm, meter and tempo — set by the metronome — are three components of music that define its movement and character. They use the different note values as well as musical rests to express musical time.
Although distinct, rhythm, meter and tempo are inseparable. A rhythmic structure only acquires its meaning and character once structured by the meter and played at a given tempo.
Rhythm
Rhythm refers to the organization of note values and rests in time. It is the structure that arises from the succession of their different durations, regardless of pitch.
Present in all cultures, it is one of the fundamental elements of music, alongside melody and harmony. Rhythm is closely linked to movement and dance: it accompanies gesture, guides walking and structures musical discourse like spoken language.
To graphically represent different durations, the note figures on the musical staff have different shapes and names: consult our page dedicated to note values in music (whole note, half note, quarter note, eighth note…).
In the same way, the temporary absence of sound must be precisely indicated. For this, composers use musical symbols called “rests” which can become active components of rhythm just like notes: consult our page on musical rests (whole rest, half rest, quarter rest…).
They also create breaths and help establish tension or repose.
Rhythmic motifs
The arrangement of different note and rest values creates motifs, also called rhythmic cells. A motif is a short recognizable sequence that can be repeated, varied or developed within a piece.
The alternation between short and long notes, like two eighth notes followed by a quarter note, is an example of a common rhythmic motif. In jazz, the use of syncopation or swing illustrates the importance of these cells.
In classical music, composers such as Beethoven or Stravinsky built entire works on the expressive power of a simple rhythmic motif.
Not content with having composed the most famous piano piece in the world (Für Elise), Beethoven, with the opening of the 5th Symphony — ta-ta-ta-taaaaaaaaah! — also penned the most famous rhythmic motif. The tempo Allegro con brio = 96 to 108 quarter notes per minute on the metronome.
Rhythm is therefore the temporal skeleton of music, the structure on which melody and harmony are built. It defines the framework in which tempo and the metronome take on their full meaning.
Meter, foundation of musical rhythm
Meter is one of the most fundamental concepts of Western music theory and one of the essential elements of rhythm. It divides musical time into regular units, allowing the organization of durations, the structuring of sounds and ensuring coherence in the performance of a piece.
Bar lines on the staff
On a score, a bar line is a vertical line drawn through all the staff lines: it delimits the space of measures by cutting the music into equal segments called measures, marking the end of one unit of time and the beginning of the next.
These bars ensure visual clarity and help the performer follow the beat and determine where the main accents fall.
Types of Bar Lines
- The single bar line: It is the standard vertical line used to separate measures.
- The double bar line: Used to mark the end of a section, a change of time signature or key.
- The final bar line (or thicker double line): Indicates the complete end of the piece or a work.
- The repeat bar line: Composed of a thin and a thick double line with two dots, it indicates that the previous (or following, depending on the dots) section must be replayed.
Chopin’s very short 7th Prelude for piano in A major contains 17 measures and 18 bar lines. Note the final bar line after the last measure, indicating the end of the piece.
Beats within the measure
Each measure contains a defined number of beats, specified by the time signature at the beginning of the piece (see below).
A beat is a rhythmic reference unit on which all other values rest. The meter not only organizes beats, it also assigns them degrees of importance, which creates a dynamic pulse.
Strong beats and weak beats
Within a measure, some beats are naturally accented, creating a perceived rhythmic structure.
- The strong beat: It is the beat on which the primary accent falls. It is almost always the first beat of the measure. It provides a rhythmic anchor.
- The weak beat: These are the unaccented beats.
- The medium-strong beat: In four-beat measures (like 4/4), the third beat is often considered medium-strong, carrying a secondary accent compared to the first beat.
Examples of accentuation:
- 2/4 measure: Strong – Weak
- 3/4 measure: Strong – Weak – Weak
- 4/4 measure: Strong – Weak – Medium-Strong – Weak
Note: some metronomes are capable of indicating the strong beats (see below on this page).
Meter and pulse
The pulse corresponds to the regular beat that one feels when listening to or playing music. It does not depend directly on the tempo indicated by the metronome, but on the internal division of the measure.
In Western music, the pulse generally remains constant, which allows musicians to play together with precision. It constitutes the framework on which the different note durations rest.
Time signatures
The time signature, located at the beginning of the staff after the key signature, consists of two stacked numbers
- The top number indicates the number of beats contained in the measure. For example, a 3 means there are three beats in the measure.
- The bottom number indicates the note value that represents a single beat (the unit of time). This number corresponds to the denomination of a note value:
- 4 = the quarter note worth 1/4 of a whole note
- 2 = the half note worth 1/2 of a whole note
- 8 = the eighth note worth 1/8 of a whole note
- 16 = the sixteenth note worth 1/16 of a whole note
For example, the 4/4 time signature means there are four beats per measure and the quarter note is the unit of time.
Simple and compound meters
Meters are classified into two major categories according to the way beats are subdivided.
Simple meters
In a simple meter, each beat is a simple note value – not dotted – and naturally divides into two equal parts.
The most common time signatures are 2/4, 3/4 and 4/4.
- In a 2/4 measure, you count two quarter-note beats, each dividing into two eighth notes.
- In a 3/4 measure, typical of waltzes, you count three quarter-note beats, each dividing into two eighth notes.
- In a 4/4 measure, you count four quarter-note beats, each dividing into two eighth notes.
The 4/4 meter is often represented by the capital letter C. It offers great rhythmic flexibility and forms the basis of many musical styles, whether classical, popular or contemporary.
The first invention for keyboard in C major by J. S. Bach is written in 4/4 but the numbers have been replaced by the letter C. The video’s thumbnail shows four measures and six bar lines.
The 3/4 meter, on the other hand, is associated with ternary dances, notably the waltz, with a strong accent on the first beat and two weak beats that create a regular, flowing sway.
Compound meters
In a compound meter, each beat is a dotted note value and naturally divides into three equal parts.
Unlike simple meters, the top number does not indicate the number of beats, but the number of subdivisions. To find the number of beats (always 2, 3 or 4), you must divide the top number by three.
The most frequent time signatures are 6/8, 9/8 and 12/8. These numbers do not indicate the number of beats, but the total number of eighth notes contained in the measure.
- In a 6/8 measure, you count six eighth notes grouped into two beats, each equivalent to a dotted quarter note.
- In a 9/8 measure, you count nine eighth notes grouped into three beats, each equivalent to a dotted quarter note.
- In a 12/8 measure, you count twelve eighth notes grouped into four beats, each equivalent to a dotted quarter note.
This subdivision produces a supple, often dance-like swing, very present in traditional music and in the slow movements of the classical repertoire.
The distinction between simple and compound meters therefore lies in the way each beat is divided. In a simple (binary) meter, the beat divides into two equal parts, whereas in a compound (ternary) meter, it divides into three.
Thus, a 2/4 measure and a 6/8 measure are both two-beat meters, but produce a very different rhythmic sensation: in the first, each beat corresponds to a simple value and divides by two (binary), while in the second, each beat corresponds to a dotted value and divides by three (ternary).
Irregular and asymmetric meters
Some modern or traditional musics employ irregular meters, where the distribution of beats is not uniform. Time signatures such as 5/8, 7/8 or 11/8 combine groups of two and three eighth notes, creating unusual and expressive rhythms. These structures give a particular dynamic and are common in Balkan or contemporary musics.
The 7/8 numbers at the start of the 3rd movement of Prokofiev’s 7th piano sonata indicate a measure of 7 beats with an eighth note for each beat
Meter and musical expression
Meter is not limited to a technical framework: it directly influences the perception of movement, phrasing and the character of a piece. The same melody played in 3/4 or 4/4 will not produce the same impression. The choice of meter therefore contributes to the rhythmic and expressive identity of the music.
Tempo
Tempo, or movement, refers to the speed of execution of a piece of music. Unless an indication of change of tempo is given, this speed remains constant and independent of the note values (whole, half, quarter…).
Some musicians use the term “pulse” to refer to tempo, emphasizing the idea of a regular beat that guides musical execution.
Knowing how to “keep the tempo” is essential to play in time, whether alone or with other musicians. It allows maintaining cohesion and balance within an ensemble or orchestra.
Tempo is therefore an essential dimension of musical expression: it structures time, influences the energy and character of the piece, and guides the musicians’ interpretation.
Note: the term “movement” is also frequently used. It should be emphasized that this word can have another meaning in classical music: it is used to designate a part of a musical work that comprises several parts. For example, Beethoven’s piano sonatas generally contain three movements, but some contain four and others only two.
Italian terms for indicating tempo
Tempo means time in Italian.
Until the invention of the metronome in the early 19th century, tempo was only indicated imprecisely by Italian terms that composers used to specify the desired speed and sometimes character. These indications, which range from very slow (Grave) to very fast (Prestissimo), are today translated into a concrete and standardized measure: BPM (beats per minute).
The table below presents the main Italian tempo markings, their equivalents in French, and the metronome ranges generally associated with each of them.
It is important to note that while these BPM values are universally accepted guidelines, their interpretation may slightly vary depending on the work, the era and the performer’s intention
| Italian Grave Largo Adagio Andante Moderato Allegro Presto Prestissimo |
French Very slow Broad Calm Walking Moderate Lively Fast Very fast |
Metronome (BPM) below 40 40 – 60 66 – 76 76 – 108 108 – 120 120 – 168 168 – 200 200 – 208 |
These tempo indications having sometimes been also considered by composers as indications of character, this further increased their imprecision.
For example, Allegro literally means “cheerful“. Yet this does not prevent composers from indicating Allegro at the beginning of a dark or dramatic work!
Everything changed with the invention of the metronome in the early 19th century. It then became possible for the composer to indicate precisely the speed of execution of his work.
The metronome
From Galileo to Winkel
Famously inspired by a regularly oscillating chandelier in the Pisa cathedral, Galileo studied and discovered at the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century the essential concepts concerning the pendulum.
In 1696, the French musician Étienne Loulié built a “chronometer” based on Galileo’s seconds pendulum, made of a lead weight suspended on an adjustable string along a vertical rule. This device had no mechanism to keep it running and produced no sound,
The first mechanical metronome with an audible pulse was invented in 1814 in Amsterdam by the Dutchman Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel: by experimenting he discovered that a pendulum weighted on both sides of the pivot could mark a regular beat, whatever the tempo speed.
He offered the first model of his “chronometer”, dated November 27, 1814, to the Hollandsch Instituut van Wetenschappen, Letterkunde en Schoone Kunsten in Amsterdam.
Unfortunately, he did not properly protect his idea and, as early as 1816, Johann Nepomuk Maelzel (sometimes “Mälzel”) added a numeric scale to the instrument and patented it under the name Maelzel’s Metronome, which remains in use to this day.
Thus, even today, Maelzel is often incorrectly credited with what was in fact Winkel’s creation.
You can see a photo of Winkel’s original metronome on the Kunstmuseum The Hague web page where it is preserved.
Maelzel’s metronome
From 1816, Maelzel began to mass-produce this pyramid-shaped device under his own name: ” Maelzel’s Metronome “.
The numbers on the metronome indicate the number of beats per minute. Thus, when it is set to 60, the metronome ticks 60 times per minute, i.e. once per second.
Beethoven and Maelzel were acquainted: the author of Für Elise is one of the first composers to indicate precise tempo values.
According to a controversial claim by Anton Felix Schindler, Beethoven’s first biographer, the staccato of the winds at the beginning of the second movement of the 8th Symphony in F major by the German composer parodies the metronome!
The metronome as a musical instrument
L’heure espagnole by Maurice Ravel
Created at the Opéra-Comique in Paris on May 19, 1911, the one-act work for five solo voices takes place entirely in the shop of the Spanish clockmaker Torquemada. The overture is marked by metronomes hidden in the orchestra and set to variable speeds, symbolizing the ticks and tocks of clocks:
You can hear very distinctly the tick-tock of the three metronomes at the beginning of the overture
According to a technical sheet written by the Lyon opera, it is specified at the very bottom of page 3, (orchestra section): 3 metronomes (set at speeds of 40, 100 and 232 beats per minute).
Poème symphonique for 100 metronomes (Ligeti)
A major composer of the second half of the 20th century, György Ligeti (1923-2006) composed Poème symphonique in 1962, during his brief encounter with Fluxus, an artistic movement touching music as well as visual arts and literature.
The work, which requires 100 metronomes, a conductor and ten performers, was created in 1963 and caused scandal. After this first performance, it has been very rarely played in public.
A shortened version but allowing a good view of how the metronomes work
Poème symphonique constitutes a unique experiment in Ligeti’s career: the Hungarian composer who wrote some of the most fascinating works in contemporary music history was revealed to the general public thanks to Stanley Kubrick’s film 2001: A Space Odyssey.
Example of a musical work played at different tempi
The chosen work is Invention No. 8 in F major for two voices by Johann Sebastian Bach, written in 3/4 (each measure contains three beats or pulses and each pulse is equal to a quarter note).
Click on the images to open the video on YouTube.
Glen Gould (1:20) – Metronome: about 103 (Moderato)
Marcelle Meyer (0:43) – Metronome: about 140 (Allegro)
Computer – Metronome: about 99 (Andante/Moderato)
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the most important difference between rhythm and tempo?
Rhythm concerns the organization of the durations of notes and rests (the musical “pattern”), while tempo defines the speed at which this rhythm is played. Imagine rhythm as the choreography of a dance, and tempo as the music to which it is performed.
How can I tell if a piece is in simple or compound meter?
To simplify, listen to the pulse. If it seems to divide naturally into two (you could clap along counting “1-2, 1-2”), it is probably a simple meter. If it divides into three (you would count “1-2-3, 1-2-3”), it is a compound meter. Compound meters (like 6/8) often have a more “dance-like” or “swaying” feel.
As a beginner, how can I improve my sense of rhythm?
Practice simple rhythms with a metronome.
– Half notes: The metronome ticks quarter notes, you strike half notes (one strike every 2 pulses)
– Eighth notes: The metronome ticks quarter notes, you play eighth notes (two equal strikes per pulse)
– Sixteenth notes: The metronome ticks quarter notes, you play sixteenth notes (four regular strikes per pulse)
– Eighth-note triplet: The metronome ticks quarter notes, you play perfectly even triplets of eighth notes (three equal strikes per pulse)
Start slowly (60 BPM) and gradually increase speed. The goal is to maintain perfect regularity while developing your rhythmic independence. To review note values and their durations, consult our page on rhythmic note values.
Is the metronome indispensable for progress?
Although one can progress without it, the metronome is a valuable tool, especially for beginners. It acts as an impartial playing partner that prevents you from slowing down or speeding up unconsciously. Using it regularly from the start helps develop a solid internal pulse, essential for playing with other musicians.
As a reminder, many free smartphone apps offer the same functionalities, often with additional options such as different sounds or the ability to accentuate strong beats. You can also search for ” online metronome ” on the Internet to display one directly in your browser.
How do I choose the right tempo when there is no indication (BPM or Italian term) on a score?
Analyze the character of the music. A joyful and energetic melody will generally be played faster (Allegro), while a sad or solemn melody will be slower (Adagio or Largo). Listen to different interpretations of the same piece by experienced musicians to get an idea of the tempo that feels most natural.
Why do some pieces seem to “breathe” and are not always perfectly in time with the metronome?
You touch here on the essential difference between metronomic accuracy and musical expression. Tempo establishes an indispensable regular base, but some performers use controlled temporal fluctuations, notably rubato (literally “stolen time” in Italian).
It is crucial to understand that rubato is not a license to play roughly. This practice is historically linked to the Romantic period, particularly Chopin who made subtle and codified use of it. Conversely, its application is generally discouraged in Baroque music and should be used with extreme restraint in the early classical repertoire (Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven).
True rubato has nothing to do with arbitrary slowdowns or accelerations. It is an art that consists of “stealing” time at one moment to “give it back” at another, while maintaining a stable underlying pulse. It applies to specific places in the score to emphasize a harmonic tension, highlight an important note, or enhance the expressivity of a melodic phrase.
Mastering strict tempo remains therefore the indispensable prerequisite: it is only after acquiring perfect rhythmic regularity that one can begin to explore the nuances of rubato with taste and discernment.
“`